ISABEL RUBIO ARROYO | Tungsteno

In 1968, Windhoek, Namibia, became the first city in the world to use recycled drinking water. Today, its example inspires other places: the Orange County Water District in California supplies more than a million people with safe recycled water, and Singapore, through its NEWater plant, produces recycled water for both industrial and household use. We explore the projects and processes that give every drop of water a “second life.”

How Namibia turns wastewater into drinking water

Namibia is one of the most arid countries in sub-Saharan Africa, and Windhoek sits on a plateau where evaporation is extreme: 83% of the rain that falls disappears into the air. The city lacks nearby perennial rivers and depends on water sources that fluctuate dramatically with the climate. Faced with chronic shortages and severe rationing in the late 1950s, the city had to look for innovative solutions.

In 1968, the Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant was established, using direct potable reuse. In other words, treated wastewater is fed directly back into the supply network without passing through a natural “buffer” such as a river or lake. Windhoek’s system is like an obstacle course for water: it must pass through multiple filters and treatment stages until it becomes completely safe to drink.

To keep pace with rapid population growth and rising demand, a new treatment plant was built in 2002. Today, the Windhoek system is a global benchmark and an example of sustainable water management, visited by experts from around the world. The plant produces up to 21 million litres of potable water per day. On average, the city’s drinking water contains between 20% and 25% recycled water. During periods of extreme drought, this source can provide nearly a third of the total supply.

Namibia has a pioneering project to convert wastewater into drinking water. Credit: DW News

A Giant in Drinking Water Recycling in California

There are other notable examples of water recycling. Orange County operates the Groundwater Replenishment System (GWRS) in California, recognised as one of the world’s largest water purification systems for drinking water reuse. Unlike Windhoek, which uses direct potable water reuse (to the tap), Orange County uses indirect potable reuse. This means that once the wastewater is purified, it is not sent directly to homes. Instead, it is injected or percolated into the county’s groundwater basins, where it mixes with the natural water supply before being extracted again for human consumption.

The system can produce up to 130 million gallons per day (about 492,000 cubic metres), enough to meet the needs of nearly one million residents, according to the Orange County Water District. This system supplies approximately 35% of the region’s total water demand and reduces dependence on imported water from the Colorado River or the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta in Northern California.

This is one of the world’s largest indirect potable water reuse plants. Credit: Orange County Water District

The Water Revolution in Singapore

Singapore is also a global leader in water management. As an island nation with limited freshwater resources and little space for reservoirs, it faces one of the highest levels of water stress in the world. The NEWater process converts wastewater into ultra-pure potable water in three key stages: first, microfiltration and ultrafiltration remove microscopic particles and bacteria; next, reverse osmosis captures viruses, heavy metals, and chemical contaminants; and finally, ultraviolet disinfection eliminates any remaining microorganisms.

Singapore strives to manage its water safely. Credit: DW Planet A

At the heart of the system lies the Changi Water Reclamation Plant, which can treat up to 900 million litres of water per day. Because of the island’s limited space, much of the system operates up to 25 storeys underground, through a complex network of tunnels and tanks. The system relies on indirect potable reuse. Although the water is technically potable after treatment, most of it is used for industrial purposes—especially in the manufacture of microchips, which require extremely pure water—and for cooling systems. Only a small amount is pumped into reservoirs, where it mixes with raw water and undergoes further treatment in conventional plants before reaching homes.

Tungsten is a journalistic laboratory that explores the essence of innovation.

ISABEL RUBIO ARROYO | Tungsteno

Barbara Jatta, the first-ever female director of the Vatican Museums in over five centuries, is responsible for safeguarding and restoring some of the Vatican’s most inaccessible spaces: sealed chambers, hidden storage rooms, and restricted areas where manuscripts, frescoes, and objects too fragile to be displayed are conserved. Under her supervision, specialised teams labour quietly, employing techniques ranging from traditional craftsmanship to the use of lasers, 3D scanning, and advanced conservation systems. Jatta safeguards a heritage that few ever see, yet one that underpins the world's most significant artistic and religious history.

Breaking Ceilings: The Story of Barbara Jatta

In 2017, Barbara Jatta made history by becoming the first woman to lead the Vatican Museums in their 516-year history. Given the site’s immense artistic importance, some say she shattered not merely a glass ceiling, but a “frescoed ceiling.” Born in Rome and academically trained in Art History, Jatta had spent more than two decades at the Vatican Apostolic Library before assuming what is widely regarded as one of the most coveted positions in the art world.

Today, she oversees a treasure trove of more than 200,000 works of art, spread across 11 kilometres of galleries, and oversees seven restoration laboratories. Under her leadership, the museums are not only preserved but increasingly digitised: virtual tours and online catalogues allow the Vatican's artistic heritage to reach audiences worldwide. With every decision about what to exhibit or what to keep secret, Jatta breathes life into a legacy that is both cultural and spiritual.

Jatta looks back on her journey at the helm of a collection of more than 200,000 works of art. Credit: EWTN

What Remains Unseen in the Vatican Museums

The proportion of works on display compared with those kept in storage varies depending on the type of art. “If we look at the percentage of what is on display and what is in [storage], it is amazing. Certain collections have only 1% on display,” she explained in an interview. In the case of painting and contemporary art collections, she estimates that the ratio is “25% on display and 75% in storage.” The institution seeks to “rotate some collections to show them better,” especially those that are easier to move, such as contemporary art and paintings.

Although Jatta is responsible for safeguarding monumental masterpieces such as the Sistine Chapel, her favourite work is a small painting of the Virgin and Child by Fra Angelico, located in Room IV of the Pinacoteca, which often goes unnoticed by many visitors. One of her preferred locations within the entire complex is the Belvedere Terrace. Designed by Bramante in the 16th century, this area is closed to the public and offers a view over Vatican City.

The Virgin and Child between Saint Dominic and Saint Catherine of Alexandria. Credit: Fra Angelico / Vatican Museums Pinacoteca

Within the complex, Jatta has experienced many unique moments. She recalls walking through the empty galleries during the pandemic lockdown, accompanied only by a small number of guards. She describes the experience as “terrifying” and “magical” at the same time, like being in a ghost town. During that period, the institution faced a profound financial crisis, as the Vatican Museums—unlike other large museums—rely exclusively on ticket sales. After a year of intermittent closures, Jatta acknowledges that anxiety spread: “People around us were talking about selling our objects to survive.” She describes the institution's recovery as a “miracle” that allowed activities to resume without the need to part with its artistic heritage.

From the Vatican to the World

Today, Jatta is a member of prestigious international organisations, such as the Scientific Council of the Louvre Museum and the International Advisory Committee of the Hermitage Museum. Over the course of her career, she has received numerous distinctions, including the Order of the Star of Italy (2019), Commander of the Royal Order of the Polar Star of Sweden (2020), and the rank of Officer of the Order of Arts and Letters of France (2021).

This international recognition reflects her view of art as a spiritual bridge that unites cultures and nations. For this reason, the museums under her direction organise exchanges with countries such as China, Mexico, and Chile. Jatta describes the collections as an “invaluable heritage of creativity, civilisation, art, history, and tradition.” This richness is valued not solely for the objects themselves, but also for the devotion that ensured their preservation across the centuries.

Tungsten is a journalistic laboratory that explores the essence of innovation.